Suburban Spaces, Suburban Cultures

About this issue

Issue number

144 pages

Summary

Participants in the recent international and interdisciplinary project, ‘Cultures of the Suburbs International Research Network’, examine the significance of culture in shaping and reflecting the suburban built environment. Their articles consider suburbs from Australia to Norway, Ireland to Canada, and England to Lebanon, tracing historical precedents, present day experience and anticipating the direction and effects of future policy.

 

The Editors

11 Dec 2015

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Great British Plans: Who Made Them and How They Worked

Ian Wray

28 Oct 2015

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Can the British plan? Sometimes it seems unlikely. Across the world we see grand designs and visionary projects: new airport terminals, nuclear power stations, high-speed railways, and glittering buildings. It all seems an unattainable goal on Britain’s small and crowded island; and yet perhaps this is too pessimistic. For the British have always planned, and much of what they have today is the result of past plans, successfully implemented.

Ranging widely, from London’s squares and the new city of Milton Keynes, to  ‘High Speed One’, the motorways, and the secret first electronic computers, Ian Wray’s remarkable book puts successful infrastructure plans under the microscope. Who made these plans and what made them stick? How does this reflect the defining characteristics of British government? And what does that say about the individuals who drew them up and saw them through?

In so doing the book casts refreshing new light on how big decisions have actually been made, revealing the hidden sources of drive and initiative in British society, as seen through the lens of ‘plans past’. And it asks some searching questions about the mechanisms we might need for successful ‘plans future’, in Britain and elsewhere.

Ian Wray is a Visiting Professor in Geography and Planning and Visiting Fellow in the Heseltine Institute for Public Policy and Practice, University of Liverpool. He was Chief Planner, Northwest Development Agency, 2000–2010. He has written for The Architects’ Journal, Management Today and The Guardian and is currently a trustee of the Town and Country Planning Association and of World Heritage UK, and a member of the general assembly of the Royal Town Planning Institute.

Contents

• Foreword
  The Right Honourable the Lord Heseltine CH
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• List of Illustrations and Sources
• Part One: Context
  1 Manoeuvre Well Executed? On Rational Plans and British Plans
• Part Two: Case Studies
  2 Landlords and Objectors: London’s Roads and Squares
  3 The Making of an English Landscape: Capability Brown and the New Aesthetic
  4 Urban Pastoral: The Building of Birkenhead Park
  5 The Uses of Disorder: Bletchley Park and the World’s First Computer
  6 The Cambridge Paradox: Phenomenal Growth; Planned Restraint
  7 Driving Ambitions: Engineering the British Motorways
  8 The City as Chessboard: Constructing the New City of Milton Keynes
  9 The Dream of Caligula: The Channel Tunnel and Its Rail Link
  10 The Pedaller’s Tale: Pioneering the National Cycle Network
• Part Three: Explanations and Implications
  11 Common Threads: Drawing Together the Case Studies
  12 Who’s in Charge? The British Government Machine
  13 How Britain Works: Pluralism, Autonomy and Individualism
  14 British Futures, British Plans: Conclusions and Implications

Books That Have Shaped Our Thinking

A city, he said, is only a crowd of citizens. If each of them has renounced his private virtue, how can they build a public good?

Mary Renault (1966 [2015]) The Mask of Apollo

Often when asked by students and other researchers about the most influential books that have really shaped the debate on cities, the built environment and planning, it is difficult to pinpoint exactly which one should be recommended. The editors of Built Environment decided that this challenge should be directed at the editorial board, and so we have asked eight members to select a ‘favourite’ book that has been influential in their careers, to comment on why, and to review it in the light of subsequent events.

This collection of papers is the outcome of that process. It is intended to act both as a record of the great and important contributions of individual authors, and examples have been taken from the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and one from 2000. It is not a definitive list, but a much more personal selection, and readers might comment on the absence of Jane Jacobs, Richard Sennett, Peter Hall, Alice Coleman, John Reps and many others, and the absence of many of the historical giants of city planning. Lewis Mumford is here, but not Patrick Abercrombie, Ebenezer Howard, Clarence Perry, Clarence Stein, Raymond Unwin, Le Corbusier and others. But many of these greats are mentioned in the individual papers.

Although it is always fun looking back, whether simply in terms of what was said then, or, with the benefit of hindsight, to have the opportunity to comment on an author’s prescience, we are all influenced by what we read. The difficulty faced by each of us has been to choose just one book, and it should be noted that none of us (i.e. the eight contributors) has selected the same book. The books chosen may also relate to the stage in the lifecycle where each contributor is currently positioned. This hypothesis has not been tested, but contributors seem to have selected a book that was first published in their ‘formative’ period. This observation in turn reflects the different periods of thinking, from the Cold War period (1960s) through growth and optimism in the early 1970s, to the transformation of cities and their renaissance over the more recent past.

The overly historical perspective taken by Lewis Mumford in his monumental tome on The City in History has been selected by Lawrence Vale. This historical survey of cities contrasts the organic city growth perspective with the more modern desire to control its development through regulation and the tendency towards ‘city centre urbanism and the vapidity of suburbia’. His essentially moral message is seen as being one of hope, as the book was written at the time of the Cold War and under the threat of mutual destruction. The examples given are mainly taken from Europe and the United States, meaning that the book’s relevance to today may be limited in terms of where city growth is now taking place most rapidly. Yet when it was published, the reception was lukewarm, and it is only now that, on reflection, its scope, scale, commitment, and passion have been realized and appreciated.

The next four papers critically examine the concept of modernism that has led to alienation and segregation within cities, and the need to move beyond that to foster a sense of community and culture. Yet even this postmodern perspective in itself is not a complete answer, as it might lead to gentrification and other forms of social exclusion.

Claire Colomb examines the important contribution made by David Harvey’s Condition of Postmodernity, where the political economy of culture is seen as being instrumental in the move beyond mass production (Fordism) to flexible accumulation (Post Fordism). These changes are not only apparent in cities, as they reflect the broader issues of globalization and new forms of production, but in her paper they are interpreted within an urban context. Harvey demonstrates the complexity of cities through the wider process of ‘cultural production and ideological transformation’. As with many of the other eight books, it is in the richness of the thinking and the literature embraced that makes each a landmark publication, as the authors all demonstrate both the breadth and depth of their thinking and knowledge. The books are truly interdisciplinary.

Allen Scott’s The Cultural Economy of Cities, written some 11 years after Harvey’s book, has been selected by Robert Kloosterman. The deindustrialization process has been completed in many Western cities, but the urban economy is now growing again through producer services and the expansion of the knowledge economy. It is here that the cultural industries have come to the fore, and there are clear agglomeration economies that allow a new creativity to take place. The book opens new avenues for thinking, as new spatial patterns of activity take place and, as the division of labour becomes a core element resulting from the growth in city specialization. This in turn has led to a transformation of urban economies and the ways in which cities should be investigated and understood.

In a rather different way, this thinking is reflected in Martin Crookston’s selection of Charlie Gillett’s The Sound of the City. Rather than looking at how cities have changed, this paper focuses on music and place, together with sound and the city. Although based mainly on the US experience of music, the criticality of place is central, as the role of music is used to describe how the city can be identified by its musical traditions. The enthusiasm of the narrative in terms of its vibrancy and commitment is apparent, but the importance of culture and identity are also working to emphasize the differences and similarities between cities. For planners, this type of argument is novel as it places emphasis more on the people and traditions rather than on the physical environment – there is more to cities than just planning.

The last paper in this group comes down to the local level and links urban spaces with the use of that space. Yasser Elsheshtawy has selected William (Holly) Whyte’s The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces to illustrate the role of the flâneur as both observer and recorder (through film) of how people relate to open space, and the importance of the quality of that space. There are strong links here between Whyte and others concerned with the urban environment at the neighbourhood level (e.g. Jacobs, Sennett and Gehl), where there is a rejection of the massive and impersonal, and a desire for the human and small scale. There was also a rejection of urban renewal that was fashionable in the 1970s and 1980s, as it was seen as destroying community, but ironically it is now accepted that gentrification could lead to the same outcome.

The last three papers are more sector based, examining the important issues of housing and transport in cities. The narrative from Michael Cohen is interesting, as it strongly promotes the concept of appropriate housing in developing cities and the encouragement of self-help as a new urban housing policy. His inspiration is John Turner and Robert Fichter’s Freedom to Build: Dweller Control of the Housing Process, where the dweller has control over the housing rather than a top down set of procedures that ignore local needs. The importance of this new thinking is that it became central to World Bank strategies for urban assistance to improve the quality of shelter and infrastructure throughout the 1970s and the 1980s. It is argued that market approaches do not provide suitable solutions to housing the urban poor, and that the provision of shelter should be seen as a process that meets needs and not as a capital investment. Even now, there are many houses without people and many people without houses, and this is true in all cities, whether in rich or poor countries.

Stephen Hamnett has taken Hugh Stretton’s Ideas for Australian Cities as his exemplar, as it provides a defence for the development of the suburban house and garden. Within the Australian context, Stretton argues for smaller and better planned cities, such as Canberra. But the true significance of the book is in Stretton’s arguments that neo-liberalism, when applied to city planning and housing, is not an effective strategy to deliver the fairer city. He was also concerned about opening minds through debate and argumentation so that new ideas can be promoted and eventually assist in the shaping of societal change. From this intellectual position he was able to move thinking away from accepting the status quo towards new perspectives that opened debates on the nature of the desirable city, suburb and region.

Transport in global cities has always provided a rich source of debate, as it is a necessary part of the city but at the same time acts as a constraint on the efficiency of the city, and on the wider concerns over equity and environmental degradation. David Banister examines the contribution that Michael Thomson’s Great Cities and Their Traffic has had on thinking, as it was one of the first books to argue for the use of demand management to allocate scarce road space. It examined a range of global cities and attempted to classify their urban structure in terms of the different approaches to transport planning. It is concluded that although the problems may be similar, the scope and scale of the problems that need to be addressed has increased and that little progress has been made towards a low carbon transport system. The endemic levels of traffic congestion act as a constraint on the development of cities, as well as increasing inequality within cities and lowering the quality of the environment.

For the individual paper authors it has been a revelation rereading these books. For the editors of Built Environment it has also been inspiring in terms of what has been written in these eight papers. Although there are differences in approach between the papers and the influence that each of the ‘greats’ has had on the authors’ thinking, there is a rich source of material here that may make you want to go back to the original texts, or to investigate for the first time some of the books covered here. We hope you enjoy the read.

Books That Shaped Our Thinking

About this issue

Issue number

Summary

We asked editorial board members to consider which book during their career has had the greatest influence on them; to describe the book; to discuss its impact generally; and to consider whether it is still relevant today. This issue is the result. 

The Editors

27 Oct 2015

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Contents

• Books That Have Shaped Our Thinking 
  DAVID BANISTER 
• Moralism and Urban Evolution: Excavating Mumford’s The City in History 
  LAWRENCE C. VALE
• Culture and Urban Development: Revisiting the Legacy of David Harvey’s The Condition of Postmodernity on Urban Studies 25 Years On 
  CLAIRE COLOMB
• Forces of Agglomeration: Allen Scott’s The Cultural Economy of Cities Revisited 
  ROBERT C. KLOOSTERMAN
• The Sound of the City – Charlie Gillett 
  MARTIN CROOKSTON
• Observing the Public Realm: William Whyte’s The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces 
  YASSER ELSHESHTAWY 
• John F.C. Turner and Housing as a Verb
  MICHAEL COHEN
• Hugh Stretton: Ideas for Australian Cities
  STEPHEN HAMNETT
• Great Cities and Their Traffic: Michael Thomson Revisited 
  DAVID BANISTER
• Publication Reviews

Great British Plans: Who Made Them and How They Worked

Can the British plan? Sometimes it seems unlikely. Across the world we see grand designs and visionary projects: new airport terminals, nuclear power stations, high-speed railways, and glittering buildings. It all seems an unattainable goal on Britain’s small and crowded island; and yet perhaps this is too pessimistic. For the British have always planned, and much of what they have today is the result of past plans, successfully implemented.

Ranging widely, from London’s squares and the new city of Milton Keynes, to  ‘High Speed One’, the motorways, and the secret first electronic computers, Ian Wray’s remarkable book puts successful infrastructure plans under the microscope. Who made these plans and what made them stick? How does this reflect the defining characteristics of British government? And what does that say about the individuals who drew them up and saw them through?

In so doing the book casts refreshing new light on how big decisions have actually been made, revealing the hidden sources of drive and initiative in British society, as seen through the lens of ‘plans past’. And it asks some searching questions about the mechanisms we might need for successful ‘plans future’, in Britain and elsewhere.

Ian Wray is a Visiting Professor in Geography and Planning and Visiting Fellow in the Heseltine Institute for Public Policy and Practice, University of Liverpool. He was Chief Planner, Northwest Development Agency, 2000–2010. He has written for The Architects’ Journal, Management Today and The Guardian and is currently a trustee of the Town and Country Planning Association and of World Heritage UK, and a member of the general assembly of the Royal Town Planning Institute.

Contents

• Foreword
  The Right Honourable the Lord Heseltine CH
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• List of Illustrations and Sources
• Part One: Context
  1 Manoeuvre Well Executed? On Rational Plans and British Plans
• Part Two: Case Studies
  2 Landlords and Objectors: London’s Roads and Squares
  3 The Making of an English Landscape: Capability Brown and the New Aesthetic
  4 Urban Pastoral: The Building of Birkenhead Park
  5 The Uses of Disorder: Bletchley Park and the World’s First Computer
  6 The Cambridge Paradox: Phenomenal Growth; Planned Restraint
  7 Driving Ambitions: Engineering the British Motorways
  8 The City as Chessboard: Constructing the New City of Milton Keynes
  9 The Dream of Caligula: The Channel Tunnel and Its Rail Link
  10 The Pedaller’s Tale: Pioneering the National Cycle Network
• Part Three: Explanations and Implications
  11 Common Threads: Drawing Together the Case Studies
  12 Who’s in Charge? The British Government Machine
  13 How Britain Works: Pluralism, Autonomy and Individualism
  14 British Futures, British Plans: Conclusions and Implications

Remaking the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge: A Case of Shadowboxing with Nature

Now available in paperback

• If safety was the reason to replace the bridge, why did it take almost 25 years to doso?
• How did an original estimate of $250 million in 1995 soar to $6.5 billion by 2014?
• And why was such a complex design chosen?

Contents

• Acknowledgements
• List of Illustrations and Sources
  1.  Mind over Matter
  2.  Field Guide to Megaproject Interpretation
• Part 1: Time in Suspension
  3. Past as Prologue 
  4.  Engineering between the Fault Lines 
• Part 2: A Race Against Time
  5.  Shockwaves by Design 
  6.  Ground Motions when Pedalling for a Pathway and Train Tracks
• Part 3: Hurry up and Wait … and Wait
  7.  Freefalling to Vertigo 
  8. Back to the Future: the ‘Big One’ of Skyrocketing Costs
  9. Aftershock: Hubris and Shadowboxing with Nature
• List of Abbreviations
• Appendix A1. Bay Bridge Cost Increases
• Appendix A2. Key State Legislation for Bay Bridge’s New East Span
• References

Meeting the Housing Challenge: British Experience, European Lessons

About this issue

Issue number

143 pages

Summary

The papers in this issue indicate that there are things that could be done to help solve some of the seemingly intractable problems that face the British housing system, but that current trends and policies are as likely to be moving in the wrong direction as in the right one.

Guest Editor: Martin Crookston

03 Aug 2015

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Contents

• Meeting the Housing Challenge: British Experience, European Lessons
  Martin Crookston
• Pushing on String: Demand and Supply
  Glen Bramley
• Why Don’t We Build Enough New Homes in England
  Pete Jefferys and Toby Lloyd
• Germany, Country of Tenants
  Florian Urban
• Playing Happy Families? Private Renting for Middle-Income Households with Children in London, Berlin and New York
  Kath Scanlon
• Meeting the British Housing Challenge: Dutch Experiences and Reflections
  Frank Wassenberg
• Asset Price Keynesianism, Regional Imbalances and the Irish and Spanish Housing Booms and Busts
  Michelle Norris and Michael Byrne
• From Social Housing to Subsidized Housing? Accommodating Low-Income Households in Europe
  Christine M.E. Whitehead
• The Rise and Fall of the Private Rented Sector in England
  David Rhodes
• Exploring the Impact of the Recession on British Volume Housebuilders: A Behavioural Analysis
  Sarah Payne
• The Housing Market Renewal Pathfinder Programme – A Drop of Keynes in a Neo-Liberal Ocean?
  Ian Cole
• Scandinavian Housing Design Since the Mid 1990s: Selected Lessons from Practice
  Richard Simmons and Karin Krokfors
• The Future of City Living: How a Post-Industrial Area could become a Sustainable Neighbourhood for the Long Term
  Rachael Unsworth

Ordinary Places/Extraordinary Events

18 Mar 2015

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This book reveals the recent urban history of ten major Latin American cities – Mexico City, Havana, Santo Domingo, Caracas, Bogotá, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Lima, Santiago, and Buenos Aires – through studies of their public spaces and the events that have taken place there. The case studies provide an unprecedented opportunity to look at cities with comparable cultural and political histories, and to investigate the use and meaning of urban space by ordinary people in extraordinary, history-making events.

While some argue that public spaces are a prerequisite for the expression, representation and reinforcement of democracy, equally they can be said to be used in the pursuit of totalitarianism. In Latin America, there have been the experiences of the Santiago of Pinochet, the Buenos Aires of Videla, the Asuncion of Strossner, or the Caracas of Pérez Jiménez, among others. Yet even here political demonstrations in public spaces played a critical role in the eventual revocation of those regimes, and/or in the subsequent re-establishment of democracy.

For the two opposing political visions – democracy versus totalitarianism – public streets and spaces, in both the past and present, have been the site for the enactment and contestation of various stances on democracy and citizenship. Indeed, the public sphere, as the intangible realm for the expression, reproduction, and/or recreation of a society’s culture and polity, usually encompasses opposing political visions and nurtures acute social confrontations which are played out in tangible space.

By exploring the use and meaning of public spaces in Latin American cities over time, the book sheds light on contemporary redefinitions of citizenship and democracy in the Americas, and by extrapolation, the world.

Clara Irazábal is the Latin Lab Director and Assistant Professor of Urban Planning in the Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation at Columbia University, New York City.
 

Contents

• Preface and Acknowledgements
• The Contributors
• Prologue Ordinary Places, Extraordinary Events in Latin America
• Clara Irazábal
• 1 Citizenship, Democracy, and Public Space in Latin America
• Clara Irazábal
• Part I: Cities, Democracies and Powers
• 2 Political Appropriation of Public Space: Extraordinary Events in the Zócalo of Mexico City
• Sergio Tamayo and Xóchitl Cruz-Guzmán
• 3 Reinventing the Void: São Paulo’s Museum of Art and Public Life along Avenida Paulista
• Zeuler R. Lima and Vera M. Pallamin
• 4  A Memorable Public Space:The Plaza of the Central Station in Santiago de Chile
• Rodrigo Vidal Rojas and Hans Fox Timmling
• 5 Lima’s Historic Centre: Old Places Shaping New Social Arrangements
• Miriam Chion and Wiley Ludeña Urquizo
• 6 The Plaza de Bolívar of Bogotá: Uniqueness of Place, Multiplicity of Events
• Alberto Saldarriaga Roa
• Part II: Place, Citizenship and Nationhood
• 7 Space, Revolution and Resistance: Ordinary Places and Extraordinary Events in Caracas
• Clara Irazábal and John Foley
• 8 The Struggle for Urban TerritoriesHuman Rights Activists in Buenos Aires
• Susana Kaiser
• 9 Iconic Voids and Social Identity in a Polycentric City: Havana from the Nineteenth to the Twentieth Century
• Roberto Segre
• 10 Unresolved Public Expressions of Anti-Trujilloism in Santo Domingo
• Robert Alexander González
   

Planning the Great Metropolis

David A. Johnson

18 Mar 2015

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As the Regional Plan Association embarks on a Fourth Regional Plan, there can be no better time for a paperback edition of David Johnson’s critically acclaimed assessment of the 1929 Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs. As he says in his preface to this edition, the questions faced by the regional planners of today are little changed from those their predecessors faced in the 1920s.

Derided by some, accused by others of being the root cause of New York City’s relative economic and physical decline, the 1929 Plan was in reality an important source of ideas for many projects built during the New Deal era of the 1930s.

In his detailed examination of the Plan, Johnson traces its origins to Progressive era and Daniel Burnham’s 1909 Plan of Chicago. He describes the making of the Plan under the direction of Scotsman Thomas Adams, its reception in the New York Region, and its partial realization.

The story he tells has important lessons for planners, decision-makers and citizens facing an increasingly urban future where the physical plan approach may again have a critical role to play.

David A. Johnson, FAICP, is Professor Emeritus of Planning at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. He is a past President of the Fulbright Association of the United States and has directed educational projects in Slovenia, Brazil, and Portugal.  Professor Johnson also has served on the staffs of the Boston Redevelopment Authority, the Washington National Capital Planning Commission and the Regional 

Contents

• Preface to the Paperback Edition 
• Preface  
• 1 Introduction         1
• 2 The Making of the New York Metropolitan Region   13
• 3 The Emergence of a Planning Tradition     26
• 4 First Steps Towards a Metropolitan Regional Plan   48
• 5 The Search for Scope and Substance     70
• 6 Technological and Ideological Inputs     116 
• 7 From Survey to Plan       147
• 8 Conflict Amidst Planning: Three Decisions    200
• 9 Carrying Out the Plan: 1929 to 1941     244
• 10 Plan and Reality: 1965       253
• 11 The Regional Plan as an Artefact and Process    273
• Bibliography         286
   

Capital Cities in the Aftermath of Empires

18 Mar 2015

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Capital cities seem to be a natural phenomenon: a state, especially a nation state, needs a central city from which it is governed and administered. However, in history this has not always been the case, and how much capital cities are cultural constructions driven by specific political agendas is impressively demonstrated in Capital Cities in the Aftermath of Empires, which deals with the planning of capital cities for the new states which emerged gradually from the declining Hapsburg and Ottoman Empires in Central and Southeastern Europe between c. 1830 and 1940. Bringing those cases of ambitious urban planning together for the first time, this book, which has been compiled by the two architectural historians Emily Gunzburger Makaš and Tanja Damljanović Conley, not only closes an important gap in European planning history – usually overlooked by a more Western European center historiography – but also offers a special European facet of postcolonial studies.

Wolfgang Sonne, Technical University in Dortmund

This book explores the planning and architectural histories of the cities across Central and Southeastern Europe transformed into the cultural and political capitals of the new nation-states created in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In their introduction, editors Makaš and Conley discuss the interrelated processes of nationalization, modernization, and Europeanization in the region at that time, with special attention paid to the way architectural and urban models from Western and Central Europe were adapted to fit the varying local physical and political contexts.

Individual studies provide summaries of proposed and realized projects in fourteen cities. Each addresses the political and ideological aspects of the city’s urban history, including the idea of becoming a cultural and/or political capital as well as the relationship between national and urban development. The concluding chapter builds on the introductory argument about how the search for national identity combined with the pursuit of modernization and desire to be more European drove the development of these cities in the aftermath of empires.

Emily Gunzburger Makaš is Associate Professor in the School of Architecture, University of North Carolina at Charlotte.

Tanja Damljanović Conley teaches architectural history at Massachusetts College of Art and Design in Boston.

Contents

• The Contributors
• Introduction
• 1 Shaping Central and Southeastern European Capital Cities in the Age of Nationalism
  Emily Gunzburger Makaš and Tanja Damljanović Conley
• Part I  South-Eastern European Capitals after the Ottoman Empire
• 2 Athens
  Eleni Bastéa
• 3 Belgrade
  Tanja Damljanović Conley
• 4 Bucharest
  Maria Raluca Popa
• 5 Cetinje
  Maja Dragičević & Rachel Rossner
• 6 Sofia
  Elitza Stanoeva 
• 7  Tirana
  Gentiana Kera
• 8  Ankara
  Zeynep Kezer 
• Part II  Central European Capitals within and after the Hapsburg Empire
• 9  Budapest
  Robert Nemes
• 10 Prague
  Cathleen Giustino
  11  Bratislava
• Henrieta Moravcíková
  12  Cracow and Warsaw
• Patrice Dabrowski
  13 Zagreb
• Sarah A. Kent
  14 Ljubljana
• Jörg Stabenow
  15 Sarajevo
• Emily Gunzburger Makaš
• Conclusion
• 16 Not Just the National: Modernity and the Myth of Europe in the Capital Cities of Central and Southeastern Europe
  Nathaniel D. Wood